The Scale of Non-Consensual Intimate Image (NCII) Abuse: A Data-Driven Global Analysis

Non-Consensual Intimate Image (NCII) abuse is a pervasive and rapidly escalating form of technology-facilitated gender-based violence. Despite national and international efforts to address the issue, the true scale remains largely underestimated due to significant reporting gaps and fragmented enforcement mechanisms. This paper provides a comprehensive, data-driven analysis of NCII prevalence, examining its scope at national, Five Eyes, and global levels. By applying a modelling approach that extrapolates from UK prevalence rates, we estimate the potential worldwide impact of NCII, revealing its scale to be at least as significant as Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM) reporting.

Our findings highlight that NCII affects an estimated 1.42% of adult women annually in the UK, with projected figures indicating that millions worldwide may be impacted each year. Further comparison with CSAM data from the NCMEC CyberTipline suggests that NCII could be at least 76% larger in scale, reinforcing the urgent need for a globally coordinated response. The lack of a dedicated international NCII reporting and enforcement framework leaves victims vulnerable, platforms inconsistent in their responses, and law enforcement agencies under-equipped to address the crisis effectively.

This paper advocates for the establishment of a dedicated NCII clearing centre, expansion of global reporting mechanisms such as StopNCII.org, and deeper integration of NCII response strategies into cybercrime legislation. By evidencing the true scale of the problem through robust data analysis, this study underscores the critical need for immediate, large-scale intervention to combat the growing threat of NCII abuse.

1. Introduction

 The exponential growth of digital communication and social media platforms has amplified the risks associated with NCII abuse, enabling the rapid creation, distribution, and exploitation of intimate content without consent. Despite the UK leading global efforts in criminalising NCII—having enforced legislation for nearly a decade—the issue continues to escalate at an alarming rate worldwide. The 2023 Revenge Porn Helpline (RPH) Report documented a sustained surge in NCII cases, with 19,000 reports handled in a single year, reflecting a tenfold increase since 2019 (Revenge Porn Helpline, 2023). This stark rise underscores the urgent need for comprehensive policy interventions, improved victim support frameworks, and more robust technological solutions to curb the proliferation of NCII content. This paper examines:

• The estimated prevalence of NCII in the UK.
• The extrapolated scale of NCII across Five Eyes nations.
• A global projection of NCII cases using available data.
• A comparative analysis with CSAM to highlight the scope of NCII as an international cybercrime.

2. The Scale of NCII in the UK

The prevalence of Non-Consensual Intimate Image (NCII) abuse in the UK continues to rise  at an alarming rate, reflecting broader trends in technology-facilitated gender-based violence. This escalation underscores not only an increase in the number of incidents but also improvements in detection and victim awareness. However, despite growing caseloads, significant underreporting persists, meaning the true scale remains obscured.

Recent research indicates that the psychological and social impacts of NCII are profound, often leading to severe emotional distress, reputational damage, financial exploitation, and, in extreme cases, self-harm or suicide (Henry et al., 2020[1]). Victims frequently face significant barriers to seeking justice, including inconsistent legal protections, delayed platform responses, and the threat of further retaliation.

2.1 The Expanding Caseload of the Revenge Porn Helpline

The increasing caseload of the Revenge Porn Helpline provides a stark illustration of the growing prevalence of NCII in the UK. Since its inception, the Helpline has recorded an exponential rise in cases, with reported incidents growing from 521 in 2015 to 22,264 in 2024—a more than fortyfold increase. This surge reflects both an increasing willingness of victims to seek support and a deeper entrenchment of NCII as a pervasive form of online abuse.

Projections based on current trends indicate that by 2028, caseloads could exceed 46,429 cases annually. This trajectory suggests that NCII is not only a growing issue but also an entrenched crisis requiring systemic intervention. The actual prevalence of NCII is likely far higher than reported figures suggest, as barriers to disclosure—including fear of stigma, lack of trust in law enforcement, and platform inaction—continue to suppress reporting rates.

2.2 The Iceberg Effect: Measuring the Unseen Scale

While reported cases provide a critical insight into the crisis, they represent only a fraction of the full picture. As repeatedly stated, we are merely disclosing more of the iceberg—its full extent remains unknown. Existing research on online harms consistently highlights a significant gap between reported incidents and the true number of affected individuals (Citron & Franks, 2019). Estimates suggest that for every reported case, many more victims suffer in silence due to fear of retaliation, limited knowledge of reporting avenues, or the perceived futility of seeking recourse.

The UK’s legal and policy framework has evolved to address NCII, with significant advancements including the introduction of the Online Safety Act and the Domestic Abuse Act (s.69). However, gaps remain in enforcement, victim support, and international coordination. Addressing these shortcomings requires a multi-faceted approach, including stronger legal deterrents, enhanced digital literacy programmes, and expanded support services.

This paper aims to disclose the true extent of NCII and advocate for a comprehensive response strategy that prioritises victim-centred approaches, cross-sector collaboration, and global policy alignment. Understanding the scale of NCII abuse is critical for shaping effective policy responses and victim support mechanisms.

The UK has been at the forefront of NCII legislation, with laws in place for a decade, yet the prevalence of such abuse continues to rise at an unprecedented rate. Despite increasing legal and technological interventions, NCII remains one of the most pervasive forms of online abuse, affecting victims across different age groups and socio-economic backgrounds. The rapid evolution of digital platforms has facilitated the ease with which intimate images can be shared without consent, exacerbating the distress and harm inflicted upon victims.

By analysing government reports, NGO findings, and law enforcement statistics, this section provides a comprehensive overview of the estimated prevalence of NCII in the UK, the reporting gaps that leave many victims unsupported, and the scale of the imagery being produced and shared. Data from the Revenge Porn Helpline highlights an exponential rise in cases, illustrating that while awareness and reporting mechanisms have improved, the actual prevalence of NCII is likely much higher due to significant underreporting. These findings provide a benchmark for understanding NCII across the Five Eyes nations and globally, offering insight into how international policy and coordinated responses can better address this growing crisis.

2.3 Prevalence Estimates

This section aims to provide a data-driven estimation of the scale of NCII abuse in the UK, drawing on government statistics, NGO reports, and law enforcement data. By quantifying the number of individuals affected and the volume of non-consensual images being shared, we gain a clearer picture of the scope of the issue. This analysis not only aims to demonstrate the prevalence of NCII but also highlight the scale of underreporting and the need for enhanced protective measures and policy interventions.

To understand the prevalence of NCII in the UK, we must begin by examining the total adult female population, as women disproportionately experience this form of abuse (Revenge Porn Helpline, 2023). By applying established prevalence rates from governmental and non-governmental sources, we can estimate the true scale of NCII incidents, the volume of imagery being produced and shared, and the gaps in reporting mechanisms. This section will present a data-driven approach to quantifying the impact of NCII, providing insight into the extent of underreporting and the broader implications for policy and victim support services.

Based on UK Government and non-governmental sources:

• Total adult female population (UK): 26,064,118 (ONS, 2023).
• Annual prevalence of gender-based violence (GBV) among women: 8.3% (NPCC, 2023).

This statistic originates from the Call to Action as Violence Against Women and Girls Epidemic Deepens (NPCC, 2023) - available at: https://news.npcc.police.uk/releases/call-to-action-as-violence-against-women-and-girls-epidemic-deepens-1 report by the National Police Chiefs’ Council (NPCC, 2023). The report underscores the increasing scale of violence against women and girls (VAWG) in the UK, highlighting a systemic failure in tackling domestic abuse, stalking, harassment, sexual offences, and technology-facilitated abuse. It stresses the need for a coordinated response between law enforcement, policymakers, and digital platforms to address the growing crisis. The findings are particularly relevant to this paper as they establish a direct link between NCII and broader patterns of gender-based violence, reinforcing the argument that NCII should be addressed as a critical aspect of VAWG intervention strategies.

• Percentage of GBV cases involving NCII: 17% (Refuge, 2022).

This statistic is drawn from the Unsocial Spaces: Online Harassment and NCII Abuse report by Refuge (2022) - available at: https://refuge.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Unsocial-Spaces.pdf. The report highlights the widespread nature of online harassment, with NCII forming a significant component of technology-facilitated gender-based violence. It details how women are disproportionately targeted, often experiencing a combination of digital abuse, stalking, and coercive control from both current and former partners. The findings underscore the urgent need for improved online safety measures, stronger legislative protections, and increased platform accountability to combat the pervasive threat of NCII abuse.

• Annual NCII victims in the UK: 369,272. This figure is derived by applying the NPCC estimate that 8.3% of adult women experience gender-based violence (GBV) annually to the total UK adult female population of 26,064,118 (ONS, 2023). From this group, Refuge (2022) reports that 17% of GBV victims experience NCII abuse, resulting in an estimated 369,272 women affected by NCII annually. This calculation underscores the scale of NCII within the broader context of GBV and highlights the need for targeted intervention strategies. To put this in context, this would suggest that this figure is equivalent to the entire adult female population of the city of Birmingham (ONS, 2023) who are annually victims of NCII (source: https://www.beta.ons.gov.uk/aboutus/transparencyandgovernance/freedomofinformationfoi/populationofbirminghambyagesexandethnicity).
• Estimated NCII images generated per victim: 8.6 images (Revenge Porn Helpline, 2023). This figure is based on data collected from cases handled by the Helpline, which found that, on average, each case involving an adult female victim contained 8.6 non-consensually shared images. This insight highlights the scale of image proliferation per victim, underscoring the compounded impact of NCII beyond individual incidents of abuse. It is important to note that the Revenge Porn Helpline reports a wide range of image numbers per individual which in some cases can be tens of thousands of images being shared without consent.  The 2023 Revenge Porn Helpline Annual Report provides further context on how these images are distributed across platforms, with many cases involving multiple platforms and repeated uploads, significantly exacerbating harm.
• Total estimated NCII images per year (UK): 3.18 million. This figure is derived by multiplying the estimated annual number of NCII victims (369,272) by the average number of images per case (8.6), as reported by the 2023 Revenge Porn Helpline Annual Report. This calculation underscores the sheer volume of NCII content being created and distributed each year, highlighting the extensive and ongoing nature of this form of abuse.

This data suggests that NCII affects 1.42% of all adult women in the UK annually. This figure is derived by dividing the estimated number of NCII victims (369,272) by the total UK adult female population (26,064,118), as reported by the ONS (2023). This calculation provides a clearer understanding of the pervasiveness of NCII within the UK population and places its prevalence on par with the scale of CSAM reports received by NCMEC for child victims. To validate this comparison, we examined the NCMEC CyberTipline report (NCMEC, 2023) and compared CSAM report data from the Five Eyes nations against their respective child populations. The results indicate that the prevalence of CSAM reports relative to child populations ranges from 1.24% (UK) to 1.54% (Canada), with an overall Five Eyes average of 1.47%. This aligns closely with the NCII prevalence estimate of 1.42% among adult women in the UK, reinforcing the argument that NCII is an issue of comparable scale and urgency to CSAM reporting. The full dataset is detailed in the NCMEC report (available at: https://www.missingkids.org/content/dam/missingkids/pdfs/2023-CyberTipline-Report.pdf).

2.4 Reporting Gaps and Underestimation

NCII reporting remains highly underestimated, with the Revenge Porn Helpline assisting around 9,000 adult women who were victims of NCII in 2023, combining direct casework and chatbot support. Given that 369,272 women are estimated to experience NCII annually in the UK, this suggests that for every woman supported, approximately 53 others require assistance but do not seek it. This data underscores the vast discrepancy between known cases and the likely true extent of NCII abuse, highlighting the scale of the 'iceberg effect,' where only a small fraction of incidents come to light while the majority remain hidden beneath the surface.

In a Freedom of Information request submitted to UK police forces for the year 2024, based upon responses from 37 forces there were 6459 complaints made by victims related to NCII. Of those complaints, 1037 arrests were made, and in total 264 resulted in either cautions or charges. Based upon these figures we can state that for those victims making a complaint, only 4% will saw their complaints result in criminal action. When reasons for withdrawal of complaint are explored, in 2180 cases, this was because the victim withdrew support.

This exponential rise highlights the urgent need for expanded victim support services, additional technological interventions, and stronger enforcement mechanisms. The inability to quantify the full extent of NCII abuse contributes to systemic underreporting, meaning that even these figures may represent a significant underestimation of the real crisis. Understanding the true scale of the problem is critical for driving policy change, increasing funding for victim services, and improving the mechanisms available for reporting and removal of harmful content.

Reasons for this significant gap include:

• Lack of awareness: Many victims do not know where to report NCII incidents.
• Fear of retaliation and stigma: Victims often feel shame or fear consequences if they come forward.
• Legal and procedural barriers: The complexity of reporting discourages victims from taking action.
• Inconsistent platform responses: Platforms frequently fail to remove NCII content swiftly, leading to distrust in reporting mechanisms.
• Proliferation: The propagation and onward sharing of NCII can increase exponentially if not addressed promptly

3. NCII Across the Five Eyes Countries

The Five Eyes alliance, consisting of the UK, US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, provides a useful benchmark for estimating NCII prevalence. This section aims to extrapolate the UK’s estimated prevalence rate (1.42% of adult women) to these countries, using demographic data to approximate the scale of NCII abuse across these allied nations. By doing so, we establish a comparative framework to understand how NCII prevalence might vary across different jurisdictions with similar legal and technological infrastructures. Additionally, this method helps provide insight into potential reporting gaps, law enforcement responses, and the scale of digital harms that require international coordination. By applying the UK’s prevalence rate (1.42% of adult women) to each nation’s female adult population, we approximate:

These figures suggest that the Five Eyes nations alone generate nearly 23 million NCII images annually, a number comparable to global CSAM reporting.

4. Global Projections of NCII Prevalence

Using the Five Eyes data as a basis for global extrapolation, this section aims to estimate the global scale of NCII prevalence by applying the established UK prevalence rate (1.42% of adult women) to the worldwide adult female population. By leveraging demographic data and extrapolating from Five Eyes trends, we can approximate the total number of NCII victims and the volume of non-consensual images being generated annually. This approach helps contextualise the issue as a widespread, underreported crisis that demands urgent international policy intervention and coordinated global response mechanisms.

• Global adult female population: ~3.5 billion (UN, 2023).
• Applying a 1.42% prevalence rate: ~49.7 million annual NCII victims.
• Applying an average of 8.6 NCII images per victim: ~428 million NCII images generated annually.

This projection suggests that NCII is an enormous, underreported crisis, requiring urgent policy intervention and international cooperation.

5. Comparisons with CSAM Reporting and Policy Gaps

This section presents a comparative analysis of NCII and CSAM reporting volumes to provide a clearer perspective on the scale of NCII. It is important to emphasise that this comparison is strictly numerical and does not attempt to assess the relative harm or impact of either issue. The goal is to use available reporting data as a benchmark to understand the potential scope of NCII abuse and highlight the urgent need for improved reporting and response mechanisms.

In 2023, NCMEC received 35.9 million CSAM reports worldwide. However, based on our modelling, a global NCII clearing centre could expect to handle at least 63.4 million reports annually, making NCII at least 76% larger in scale than CSAM cases. This significant volume underscores the widespread nature of NCII and the necessity for robust, coordinated international intervention. While CSAM benefits from well-established reporting structures, mandatory reporting laws, and a dedicated global clearinghouse through NCMEC, NCII remains fragmented across jurisdictions, leading to inconsistent responses and barriers for victims seeking support.

The implications of this comparison are substantial. A coordinated global NCII reporting and response mechanism, similar to the CSAM model, would enable authorities to better track, prevent, and respond to NCII incidents. Furthermore, industry collaboration through hash-sharing and automated detection could significantly reduce the circulation of non-consensual imagery, improving victim protection and legal enforcement. This comparison highlights the necessity of treating NCII as a major cyber-enabled crime, requiring the same level of urgency and international cooperation as CSAM.

6. Conclusion: The Urgent Need for a Coordinated Response

The data presented in this paper underscores the urgent need for a coordinated global response to NCII. The modelling applied throughout this analysis highlights the vast scale of the issue, demonstrating that NCII is at least as prevalent as CSAM and yet lacks the same level of international coordination, legislative mandates, and enforcement mechanisms. Our findings confirm that NCII remains significantly underreported, with tens of millions of victims likely affected worldwide every year. Without a dedicated reporting framework, the majority of NCII cases remain unaddressed, exacerbating harm to victims and allowing offenders to operate with impunity.

The UK, having been at the forefront of NCII legislation for nearly a decade, has a unique opportunity to take the lead in establishing a global response. The recommendations outlined in this paper are directly informed by the data-driven modelling, which evidences the necessity of scalable intervention mechanisms. Specifically, this paper calls for:

• Establishing a Five Eyes NCII clearing centre to test a scalable model and improve cross-border coordination. This initiative should mirror the impact that NCMEC has had on CSAM reporting through centralised and mandatory reporting. Given the existing partnership between StopNCII.org and TakeItDown at NCMEC, a similar framework could significantly enhance NCII response mechanisms, ensuring mandatory content reporting, improved cross-border law enforcement collaboration, and strengthened victim support services.
• Expanding StopNCII.org to function as a core infrastructure for global NCII reporting, facilitating industry-wide cooperation in preventing the circulation of non-consensual imagery. StopNCII.org is already the world’s leading victim support tool for preventing NCII, pioneering the world’s first device-side hashing technology to empower victims and prevent the further spread of intimate images. To enhance its impact, platforms should be mandated to integrate with StopNCII.org, ensuring that content is proactively identified, removed, and reported. A global mandate for its adoption would provide a uniform, efficient mechanism for tackling NCII at scale, reducing the burden on victims while improving enforcement and content moderation standards across digital platforms.
• Ensuring adequate victim support resources is crucial, as the Revenge Porn Helpline and similar services will require significantly more funding and technological capability to handle the projected caseload. This includes the development of better and automated reporting systems, as well as improved technology to assist in the identification, reporting, and removal of NCII across platforms.
• Working with UN and law enforcement partners to integrate NCII enforcement into cybercrime treaties, ensuring mandatory reporting structures and streamlined victim support services. Additionally, building capacity across different countries is essential, both in law enforcement and victim support organisations. Many nations lack the necessary infrastructure to handle the scale of NCII cases effectively, resulting in inconsistent enforcement and inadequate resources for victims. Training programmes, technological investment, and international collaboration are crucial to ensuring a global response that is both effective and sustainable.

The scale of NCII, as evidenced in our modelling, demonstrates that this issue is not peripheral but central to discussions on online harm, gender-based violence, and digital rights. Addressing NCII at scale is critical to meeting the UK Government’s commitment to halving violence against women and girls (VAWG) within a decade. It is imperative that policymakers, technology companies, and international stakeholders acknowledge the data and act swiftly to implement coordinated, large-scale solutions.

• Establishing a Five Eyes NCII clearing centre to test a scalable model.
• Expanding StopNCII.org to function as a core infrastructure for global NCII reporting.
• Working with UN and law enforcement partners to integrate NCII enforcement into cybercrime treaties.

Addressing NCII at scale is critical to meeting the UK Government’s commitment to halving violence against women and girls (VAWG) within a decade.

References

• NPCC (2023). Call to Action as Violence Against Women and Girls Epidemic Deepens. Available Here
• Refuge (2022). Unsocial Spaces: Online Harassment and NCII Abuse. Available Here
• Revenge Porn Helpline (2023). Annual Report. Available Here
• NCMEC (2023). CyberTipline Reports. Available Here
• UN (2023). World Population Data. Available Here